Fiction as History Essay Example for Free

Fiction as History Essay He was known as â€Å"Gabo† to the people living in Colombia and to those who knew him by his reputation. He was not only a short-story writer, a novelist and a screenwriter by profession for he was also a journalist—these were only among the many things which gave him the honor as among the famous writers of Latin America and one of the most significant 20th century authors. At the age of 65, Gabriel Garcia Marquez was given the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1982: the product of the combination of an early life largely influenced by his grandfather and a life lived through the ways and means of journalism after quitting law school (Williams, p. 135). Gabo is considered to be a pioneering author in the Latin American â€Å"Boom† during the 1960s, stemming from the fame he achieved through his masterpiece One Hundred Years of Solitude and his indispensable presence and role in Latin American literature (Maurya, p. 54). One Hundred Years of Solitude has been significantly understood by critics and literary scholars as a history of Gabo’s rendition of the circumstances during the strike that happened back in 1928 in Colombia (Posada-Carbo, p. 401). That magnus opus of Gabo is said to scrutinize the Colombian regime’s repressive nature as well as the strike itself which claimed the lives of many workers. Throughout the course of his career, the literary style known as â€Å"magical realism† has been largely attributed to Gabo as he was the one who popularized the literary technique of using magical events and elements so as to give real experiences the fitting explanations (Hinds and Raymond, p. 897). Gabo is also said to have been an influential writer not only for his fellow Latin Americans but also for fresh authors and budding writers from other nations. For Gabo, reality is a very significant theme and ingredient in his writings, especially evident in his works â€Å"In Evil Hour,† â€Å"Big Mama’s Funeral† and â€Å"Nobody Writes to the Colonel† (Aizenberg, p. 1239). These three works of Gabo reflect the kind of Columbian society where he lived inasmuch as they also reflect the reality of life in the nation. The theme of reality is the foundation for the rational structure of the books of Gabo, although European readers may tend to be less aware of the reality that Gabo wants to send across and tend to be more inclined to interpret his works as testimonies to his magical realist craft. The first few years in the career of Gabo Marquez saw a struggling journalist in him. He was literally a travelling journalist simply because he was always on the move, transferring from town to town across Latin America and Europe. At one point, he worked for El Espectador back in 1955 as a correspondent reporting from Rome and Paris. Although the newspaper was shut down by the dictator Rojas Pinilla which took away his position as a journalist, Gabo nevertheless was able to pick up on where he was left and continued his writing career in Mexico City. In the City, he did not only work as a journalist; he also worked as a screen writer and as a publicist before moving back to Barcelona during the 1970s. Although Gabo was a well-travelled writer, it can be said that he never fails to at least think about his hometown and reflect it on what he has written. Evidence to this is his constant use of the town â€Å"Macondo† in his many stories which reminds the readers of the town of Aracataca where Gabo was born and lived his childhood days (Molen, p. 4). This was true right from the time when Gabo began writing to the time when he was able to considerably attain success in the literary limelight. Nonetheless, the time when Gabo began writing was a significant event for the literary scene in Hispanic American societies because the literature in those regions was characterized either by realist-modernist or super-regionalism during the middle part of the twentieth century. Those were the times when Latin American writers were busy either writing as a modernist or as a realist—both having the tendencies to categorize themselves as ‘regional’ writers or writers who either depict or mask reality in their respective places. Maurya Vibha further suggests that there is an apparent â€Å"absent history in the Third World conditions of Latin America† and a â€Å"link between postcolonial fiction and a desire to think historically† in the works of Gabo (p. 54). If Vibha is indeed right, then there is strong reason to believe that what Gabo did in his works is to provide that link and, in the end, to capture the significance of those ‘third world conditions’ into a piece of literature which depicts the stark reality in Latin American societies. Apparently, the works of Gabo, if not the course of his life, present the struggles faced by Latin Americans in their own territory as well as in others. In effect, it can be said that Gabo’s ‘magical realism’ is indeed a combination of the depiction of the social realities that the author saw in his lifetime and of the literary magic that he used in depicting those realities. Although European readers may get the impression that the literature of Gabo is ‘magic’ in itself, it should not be the case that the substance of his works be confined to that magic alone for it transcends the barriers of that magic by portraying reality at its highs and lows. Works Cited Aizenberg, Edna. Historical Subversion and Violence of Representation in Garcia Marquez and Ouologuem. PMLA 107. 5 (1992): 1239. Hinds, Elizabeth Jane, and Raymond Leslie Williams. Interview with Gabriel Garcia Marquez. PMLA 104. 5 (1989): 897. Maurya, Vibha. Gabriel Garcia Marquez. Social Scientist 11.1 (1983): 54. Molen, Patricia Hart. Potency Vs Incontinence In The Autumn of the Patriarch Of Gabriel Garcia Marquezpotency Vs Incontinence In The Autumn of the Patriarch Of Gabriel Garcia Marquez. Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature 33. 1 (1979): 4. Posada-Carbo, Eduardo. Fiction as History: The Bananeras and Gabriel Garcia Marquezs One Hundred Years of Solitude. Journal of Latin American Studies 30. 2 (1998): 401. Williams, Raymond Leslie. The Visual Arts, the Poetization of Space and Writing: An Interview with Gabriel Garcia Marquez. PMLA 104. 2 (1989): 135.

Hospital Management In Nepal Health And Social Care Essay

Hospital Management In Nepal Health And Social Care Essay There is no internationally accepted clear definition for hospital. There are several types of hospitals based on the facilities, equipments and services, i.e. district hospitals, provincial hospitals, speciality hospitals and referral hospitals, teaching University hospitals and other types of health care facilities. There is no international standard defining what should be the minimum services that each hospital should provide during a health crisis. Each country has to develop a national policy and technical guidelines to deal with a health crisis. Before defining the essential services, the ministry of health has to define the essential health services that the health sector will provide to the community to the community in order to identify what more specific services will be delivered by hospitals (WHO, 2009). Management is defined as the organization and coordination of the activities of an enterprise in accordance with certain policies and in achievement of defined objectives. Management is included as a factor of production along with machines, materials and money. Renowned guru of management Peter Drucker (19909-2005) has said that the basic task of management is two fold: marketing and innovation. Practice of modern management owes its origin to the 16th century enquiry into low efficiency and failures of certain enterprises, conducted by the English statesman Sir. Thomas Moore (1478-1535). As a discipline, management consists of the interlocking services of formulating corporate policy6 and organizing, planning, controlling and directing an organizations resources to achieve the policies objectives (Walden University, 2011).Hospital managenmnet.net suggests that Hospital Management provides a direct link between healthcare facilities and those supplying the services they need ( Hospi tal management.net 2011) . WHO in 2009 suggests understanding by hospital management as the effective and combined management of, the following factors:- (a) Acute care for emergency patients; (b) Out Patient Department (OPD) activities; (c) Investigation (laboratory; X-ray; other diagnostic elements); (d) Referral for primary health care (PHC); specialized consultations or services; (e) Contribution to public health programmes; (f) Part of health information system (surveillance system, including a EWS Component); (g) Public information and education; and (h) Preparedness for health crisis management. . Nepal is a landlocked country which is mostly covered by hills and mountains and it has a population of 25.8 million as estimated in 2006. It is in the south Asian continent, north to India and south to China. Its area is 147,181 sq. km (WHO, 2007). It has been facing several challenges to establish a functional health management system (Thapa, 2010). This essay deals with the challenges which Nepali health system is facing at present and suggests the possible ways for its improvement. Statement of the problem Nepals health system is in transition. Nepal is an underdeveloped country where the health indicators are very poor. The health service facility is not adequate to Nepali people. So the hospitals are (Dixit, 2005). Nepals hospital bed per ten thousand populations is 4.26 (2001/02), physician per ten thousand populations is 2 and Nurses per ten thousand population is also 2 as per the data of 2004 Similarly, Total Expenditure on Health (THE) as % of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 5.3% and Public Expenditure on Health (PHE) as % of Total Expenditure on Health (THE) is 28 while Private Expenditure on Health (PvtHE) as % of Total Expenditure on Health (THE) 72(WHO, 2007). If it is compared with the other developing countries in the same region i.e. south east Asian region, the level of the problem may be perceived. Maldives, a small tiny country with population 298 thousand has Total Expenditure on Health (THE) as % of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 6.2. Maldives Public Expenditure on Health (PHE) as % of Total Expenditure on Health (THE) is 89 as compared with 28 of Nepal. Private Expenditure on Health (PvtHE) as % of Total Expenditure on Health (THE) in Maldives is 11. It shows that the state has better involvement in Maldives than in Nepal. More over, the population per hospital bed is 381, which are 26.2 hospital beds per 10000 populations. Similarly, number of populations per physician 959 and nurses per 10000 populations are 33 (WHO, 2007). It clearly shows the scenario of health development of Nepal. As part of health, curative health services have a major role in providing quality health service to the people. Until the health care provider organizations are strong, the curative health service can not be delivered to the beneficiaries properly (Edelman and Mandle 2006). Hospitals are the key component of health care delivery system and they needs to be reformed to ensure a quality health care system (McKay and Healy, 2000).Unfortunately the hospitals in Nepal have very poor in quality management and they are not able to deliver quality health services to the people (Dixit, 2005). To address the needs and requirement of the hospital, the government of Nepal ( GON), Ministry of Health and Population ( MOHP) has published The guideline on the establishment, Operation policy and standard and infrastructure for Private and Public Health Hospitals in 2004 ( MOHP,2004). But it is still lacking in the formulation of the standard for the hospitals run by the government (Dixit, 2005). However, the policy published by the MOHP tries to clarify on the basic parameters of the infrastructures required for the hospitals which may be applied for the general hospitals as well. But the document does not speak about the application in the government run hospitals (MOHP, 2004). That is why; there is a lack of clear cut guideline for the management of hospital. Nepals health sector is facing a challenge regarding the management (Dixit, 2005). As part of whole system of health in the country, management of the hospitals is also a challenge. 1.2 Summary of the problem Nepal has set a target to achieve the millennium Development goals by 2015. It has to meet the target in all health indicators. Goal no 3 and 4 are c loosely related with health and as part of curative health, hospital and hospital management have crucial role in health promotion. In Nepalese context, hospital management skill and concept of hospital management is still beyond the priority of the government and the government still does not have any policy guidelines over the hospital management sector (Dixit, 2005). People skill is a key asset for the development of key management styles. Dealing the people is a professional skill in itself. Being able to see from the perspective of others is essential, and caring for their welfare is also of prime importance. There are many high-profile examples of how to develop a successful management style. Managers like Bill Gates and Warren Buffett have famously developed their own distinctive management style from which others can learn. However, the fact that the two examples are very different management styles shows that there is no single route to success (Bono and Hellers, 2009). But unfortunately, there are no clear guidelines or policy found in the government documents. The recent document on the guideline on the requirement of a hospital, government does not speak about the hospital management, its skill development and transfer for the improvement of a hospital (MOHP, 2004). Lack of professional skill in the person responsible to manage the hospitals has created a problem in hospital management. The government run or supervised hospitals still do not have positions for the hospitals. MOHP in its policy document has not mentioned anything about the hospital managers (MOHP, 2004). However, the private hospitals have started hiring them which is still out of the government policy (Thapa, 2010). Nepal is a underdeveloped country where the literacy rate is only 62.7% for male and 34.9% for female as per the report of census 2001 (CBS, 2001). It means still 64.1% women are out of literacy coverage. Nepal has poor health facilities all over the country except in capital Kathmandu and other urban areas. Most of the doctors are not willing to go to the rural areas hospitals and they are often running without (qualified) doctors (Dixit, 2005). In conclusion, the poor socio-economic conditions, hard geographical conditions and lack of awareness of the people and traditional beliefs and superstitions, lack of will in the political parties and their leaders are the main burning issues for the improvement of health sector in Nepal (Chaulagain, 2004). These all are problems associated with the hospitals and ultimately with their management. The factors associated to hospital management are still not uncovered in Nepal (Thapa, 2010). So, it Purpose of the study As mentioned above, it has been obvious that Nepal is facing the problems to strengthen the management of the health sector. The documents are not found to have been lacking regarding the strategies and policies on the health management. So, the essay aims to identify the hindering factors affecting the hospital management in Nepal. It will study the existing policies and strategies of the government of Nepal on hospital management, international principles, theories and practices on hospital management and identify the factors which are affecting the betterment for hospital management sector of Nepal. So, the purpose of the study is to identify the current issues that hinder the hospital management in the case of Nepal and suggest the concerning authorities about improving the management system, formulating the policies and implementing them. It will analyse the strength and limitations of the hospital management system in Nepal and help all the concerned to mitigate and minimize them. Main research question The study can not answer all questions that come on surface while studying about the issue. So, to narrow down the study area and sharpen the focus, the study has defined the main study questions as follows:- What are the hindering factors that effect the hospital management in Nepal? Subsidiary Questions To supplement the main research question, these questions are defined as subsidiary questions as follows:- What are the existing strong aspects of the hospital management in Nepal? What are the limiting factors in hospital management in Nepal? How is the existing hospital management system in Nepal? What is the appropriate modality or best practices of hospital management that are applied in the world by other countries and What are the factors that are hindering the in the betterment in the hospital management in Nepal? Hypothesis Lindsen and Jong (2005) have defined hypothesis as an alternative explanation of residual switch trial costs or, more precisely, of the empirical finding that the repetition trial (RT) distribution for switch trials with a long preparation intervals can be modelled as a mixture of the RT distributions for repetition trials and for switch trials with a short preparation interval (Lindsen and Jong, 2010). In here, the hypothesis tries to establish an alternative factor that might be supposed to be the commonest hindering factor for the management of hospitals in Nepal. The hypothesis taken here is the lack of professionalization of hospital managers or the person who are involved in the management of either government run or private or community run hospitals in Nepal. It will be verified by the study afterwards in here. Significance of Study As mentioned above there are no special policies and practices established for hospital management in Nepal. The hospitals are managed by the medical doctors or surgeons so far (MOHP, 2004). The doctors are not entitled to diagnose the patients, treat them, run medical and surgical and public health cams campaigns in the hospitals or in the periphery of the hospitals. The Medical council is liable to assign the job responsibilities of the doctors in the case of Nepal. But it has not mentioned about the management part of the hospital and its regulation, Nepal Medical Council Act, 1964 (amended in 2001).It does not speak who is responsible for that (Nepal Medical Council, NMC, 2001). There is no one professionally responsible for the hospital management in the present context. In the country where the government policy about the medical sector does not speak about the role of hospital management, it becomes obvious that the hospital management sector is not running smoothly. No presen ce of the monitoring body to supervise and evaluate the hospital management is found in the present documents whether published by the government or private organizations. So, the studies significance is in establishing the fact what is the main barrier and other minor barriers in the hospital management of Nepal. That is why this study is has an important significance.

DNA Fingerprinting for Identification of Plant Species

DNA Fingerprinting for Identification of Plant Species ABSTRACT Conservation of plant resources prevents the loss of valuable plant species in the past centuries. Many species like that of wild Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius , Japonica are endangered and requires restoration. Its adverse impact on environmental and socioeconomic values has triggered the studies on plant diversity. It is seen that appropriate identification and characterization of plant materials is essential for the conservation of plant resources and to ensure their sustainable use. Molecular tools developed in the past few years provide easy, less laborious means for assigning known and unknown plant taxa. These techniques answer many new evolutionary and taxonomic questions, which were not previously possible with only phenotypic methods. Various techniques such as DNA bar coding, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), microsatellites, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) have recently been used for plant diversity studi es. Sequencing based molecular techniques provide better resolution at intra-genus. Whereas data from markers such as random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and microsatellites provide the means to classify individual medicine. In addition DNA methods are reliable approaches towards authentication of Chinese medicinal materials. For future reference, it is necessary to compile library of Chinese medicines which include genetic information, especially for endangered species and those with high market value and or with possible poisonous adulterants which can affect quality of medicine. INTRODUCTION For the sustainable development and for improvement and maintenance of agricultural and forestry production there is a use for conservation of plant genetic resources. The objective of plant genetic resources conservation is to preserve as broad a sample of the extant genetic diversity of target species as is scientifically and economically feasible, including currently recognized genes, traits and genotypes [1]. Genetic diversity finds its natural resources in wild species for which it is important to find out the amount of genetic variability by the way of morphological, biochemical and molecular markers, besides some interesting physiological turns. Characterization of diversity is based on morphological traits. However, it is seen that morphological variability is often restricted, characters may not be obvious at all stages of the plant development. Identification plays a very important role in diversity studies. Accurate classification of individuals is essential for evaluation of species diversity. The identification of taxonomic units and endangered species, whose genetic constitution is distinct from their more abundant relatives, is important in the development of appropriate conservation strategies Nowadays, a variety of different genetic markers has been proposed to assess genetic variability. Molecular tools provide valuable data on diversity through their ability to detect variation at the DNA level CONSERVATION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES: Effective conservation of plant genetic resources requires a complementary approach which makes use of both ex situ and in situ conservation methods to maximize the genetic diversity available for use. ex situ conservation: The objective of ex situ conservation is to maintain the accessions without change in their genetic constitution [1]. The methods that are designed are such that can be used to minimize the possibility of mutation, random genetic drift, selection or contamination. It is seen that storing of seeds at low temperatures and humidities can bring long term ex situ conservation. But there are many clonally propagated species, such as banana and potato, cannot be conserved in this way, and many species, particularly tropical forest tree species, produce seeds that are recalcitrant and cannot be stored. These species can only be maintained ex situ in field gene banks as growing collections of plants, or in vitro using tissue culture or cryopreservation [2]. In situ conservation: In situ conservation is considered to be the method of choice for conserving forest species and wild crop relatives and there is increasing interest in the use of in situ conservation for crops themselves (on-farm conservation) [3]. In situ conservation allows evolution to continue, increases the amount of diversity that can be conserved, and strengthens links between conservation workers and the communities who have traditionally maintained and used the resources. All genetic resources conservation activities require characterization of the diversity present in both the gene pools and the gene banks. Molecular genetics has an important role to play in many aspects of conservation such as characterizing plant genetic diversity for purposes of improved acquisition, maintenance and use. A number of different techniques are available for identifying genetic differences between organisms. The choice of technique for any one specific use will depend upon the material being studied and the nature of the questions being addressed. Protein polymorphisms were the first markers used for genetic studies. However, the number of polymorphic loci that can be assayed, and the level of polymorphisms observed at the loci are often low, which greatly limits their application in genetic diversity studies. With the development of new technologies, DNA polymorphisms have become the markers of choice for molecularâ‚ ¬Ã‚ based surveys of genetic variation. DNA ma rkers are useful in both basic (e.g. phylogenetic analysis and search for useful genes) and applied research (e.g. marker assisted selection, paternity testing and food traceability). A number of markers are now available to detect polymorphisms in nuclear DNA [4]. Properties desirable for ideal DNA markers include highly polymorphic nature, co dominant, frequent occurrence in the genome, selective neutral behavior, easy access, easy and fast assay and high reproducibility [5]. NEED FOR GENETIC RESOLUION: It is a duty of Gene bank managers and conservationists concerned with both in situ and ex situ management to conserve as much as possible the extinct genetic diversity of the species with which they work. The effectiveness with which they do this depends to a large extent on the genetic information available on the germplasm with which they work. Molecular markers provide genetic information of direct value in key areas of conservation both ex situ and in situ. For ex situ conservation the key issues are: Acquisition: Data on the diversity of existing collections can be used to plan collection and exchange strategies. In particular, calculations of genetic distances based on molecular data can be used to identify particular divergent subpopulations that might harbour valuable genetic variation that is under-represented in current holdings Maintenance: Genetic data are essential to identify duplicate accessions in order to ensure best use of available resources. Genetic markers are also needed to monitor changes in genetic structure as accessions are generated. Molecular markers provide markers suitable for both of these. Characterization: The genetic diversity within collections must be assessed in the context of the total available genetic diversity for each species. Existing passport data document the geographic location where each accession was acquired. However, passport records are often missing or incorrect. Molecular markers may extend and complement characterization based on morphological or biochemical descriptions, providing more accurate and detailed information than classical phenotypic data. Distribution to users: Users of collections benefit from genetic information that allows them to identify valuable traits and types quickly. On a more fundamental level, molecular marker information may lead to the further identification of useful genes contained in collections. Molecular data on diversity may provide essential information to develop core collections [6] that accurately represent the entire collection. Molecular markers may therefore be used in four types of measurements needed for effective ex situ conservation, all of which are useful in resolving the numerous operational, logistical, and biological questions that face gene banks managers [7]. These are: identity: the determination of whether an accession or individual is catalogued correctly, is true to type, maintained properly, and whether genetic change or erosion has occurred in an accession or population over time; Similarity: the degree of similarity among individuals in an accession or between accessions within a collection. Structure: the partitioning of variation among individuals, accessions, populations, and species. Genetic structure is influenced by in situ demographic factors such as population size, reproductive biology and migration. Detection: the presence of particular allele or nucleotide sequence in a taxon, gene bank accession, in situ population, individual, chromosome or cloned DNA segment. Those concerned with in situ conservation need to ensure that appropriate populations are identified and managed in such a way that they survive and continue to evolve. Their responsibilities can include: Location: the identification of populations which should be conserved based on the genetic diversity present as well as on the value of the resource and the threats to it. Crucial to this is knowledge of the extent and distribution of genetic diversity in species populations which should optimally include molecular data. Management: the development of management plans to monitor the changes in target populations over time and ensure their continued survival. The populations maintained in situ constitute part of ecosystems and both intra- and interspecific diversity must be maintained over time at appropriate levels. Accessibility: in situ conservation is most commonly of interest in forest genetic resources conservation and that of wild crop relatives but it is also of increasing interest for on-farm conservation of traditional cultivars. Genetic resources conserved in this way remain accessible to the communities who depend on them. Managers need to ensure they are also accessible to other users and that sufficient genetic information is available to assist such users. Within the context of in situ conservation, therefore, identity, similarity, structure and detection are also important and can be usefully investigated using molecular techniques BASIC GENETIC TOOLS DNA sequencing: DNA sequencing is the determination of the precise sequence of nucleotides in a sample of DNA. The nucleotides bases are A (adenine), G (guanine), C (cytosine) and T (thymine) The conventional and next generation sequencing techniques are thus been explained in detail. Conventional Sequencing Technique- Now days it is seen that dye-terminator sequencing technique is the standard method in automated sequencing analysis [8]. And for majority of sequencing the dye-terminator sequencing method, along with automated high-throughput DNA sequence analyzers, is used. Dye-terminator sequencing  utilizes labelling of the chain terminator dents, which permits sequencing in a single reaction, rather than four reactions as in the labelled-primer method. In dye-terminator sequencing, each of the four di de-oxynucleotide chain terminators is labelled with fluorescent dyes, each of which emit light at different wavelengths. Owing to its greater expediency and speed, dye-terminator sequencing is now the mainstay in automated sequencing. The main advantages of this technique are its robustness, automation and high accuracy Its limitations include dye effects due to differences in the incorporation of the dye-labelled chain terminators into the DNA fragment, resulting in unequal peak heights and shapes in the electronic DNA sequence trace  chromatogram  after  capillary electrophoresis  . This problem has been addressed with the use of modified DNA polymerase enzyme systems and dyes that minimize incorporation variability, as well as methods for e liminating dye blobs. DNA barcoding of plants has now gained the interest of scientists with the aim to identify an unknown plant in terms of a known classification. DNA barcoding is a technique for characterizing species of organisms using a short DNA sequence from a standard. DNA barcode sequences are thus shorter than the entire genome and can be obtained quickly [9]. Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) was used for species-level assignment of plants and individual barcodes were obtained with matK (99%), followed by trnH-psbA (95%) and then rbcL (75%) [10]. Recently, a group of plant DNA barcode researchers proposed two chloroplast genes, rbcL and matK, taken together, as appropriate for bar-coding of plants [11]. Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) is the basis of Molecular phylogenies in plants but the problems due to gene flow of cpDNA among closely related taxa, as well as the lack of phylogenetic resolution, triggered the development of new approaches based on nuclear DNA [13]. The most common alternative corresponds to the sequencing of the ITS (internal transcribed spacer) of 18S-25S nuclear ribosomal DNA [14, 15]. The failure of both cpDNA and ITS techniques to sequence, the amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) approach has the potential to solve such difficulties, particularly among closely related species, or at the intra-specific level [16-18]. Therefore, integration of recently developed bar-coding with the following techniques such as RAPD, AFLP, microsatellite and SNP seems to provide better resolution. Next Generation Sequencing Techniques Next generation platforms do not rely on Sanger chemistry [19] as did the first generation machines used for the last 30 years. The first of this kind of 2nd generation of sequencing technique appeared in 2005 that was based on pyrosequencing [20, 21] Commercial 2nd generation sequencing methods can be distinguished by the role of PCR in library preparation. There are four main platforms; all being amplification-based: (i) Roche 454 GS FLX, (ii) Illumina Genome Analyzer IIx, (iii) ABI SOLiD 3 Plus System and (iv) Polonator G.007 [22] The single-molecule sequencing method (also known as 3rd generation or next-next generation) is independent of PCR [25,30]. This mode of sequencing protocol was recently developed by Helicos Genetic Analysis System using the technology developed by Braslavsky et al. [23]. Other 3rd generation sequencing systems are being developed by Life Technologies and Pacific Biosciences SMRT technology and may appear within one to two years. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) The invention of PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is a milestone in the development of molecular techniques. PCR results in the selective amplification of a chosen region of a DNA molecule. Random amplification of DNA with short primer by PCR is a useful technique in phylogenetics. The important point is the banding pattern seen, when the products of PCR with random primers are electrophoresed in a reflection of the overall structure of the DNA molecule used as the template. If the starting material is total cell DNA then the banding pattern represents the organization of the cells genome. Differences between the genomes of two organisms can be measured with RAPD. Two closely related organisms would be expected to yield more similar banding patterns than two organisms that are distant in evolutionary terms [24]. Moreover, this technique requires only small piece of animal tissue or blood, as the extracted DNA can be amplified million times using PCR. Basic protocol: EXTRACTION OF HIGHLY PURE DNA ADDITION OF SINGLE ARBITARY PRIMER POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR) SEPARATION OF FRAGMENTS BY GEL ELECTROPHORESIS VISUALIZATION OF RAPD-PCR FRAGMENTS AFTER EtBr STAINING UNDER UV DETERMINATION OF FRAGMENT SIZE This technique has mainly gained attraction as there is no requirement for DNA probes or sequence information for primer designing. There are also no blotting or hybridizing steps. This technique only requires the purchase of a thermo cycling machine and agarose gel apparatus and relevant chemicals, which are available as commercial kits and also it is a quick and simple technique. It is important to note that RAPD technique requires maintaining strictly consistent reaction conditions in order to achieve reproducible profiles [25]. The RAPD markers have been used for detecting genomic variations within and between varieties of sweet potato. A total of 160 primers were tested and eight showed consistent amplified band patterns among the plants with variations within and between varieties [26] of sweet potato. Restriction fragment length polymorphism All organisms are genotypically different because they have had numerous differences in their genomic DNA. This difference results in a restriction fragment length polymorphism. Here the chromosomal DNA is first cleaved by restriction enzymes creating fragments and then these fragments are separated by agarose gel electrophoresis. After it southern hybridization analysis is carried out using probe that spans the region of interest. The probe hybridizes to the relevant region, lighting up the appropriate restriction fragments on the resulting autoradiograph. If an RFLP is present then it will be clearly visible on the autoradiograph. Thus RFLP is used as a major tool to identify the genetic diversity within and between species [27]. Basic Protocol CHROMOSOMAL DNA Cleave with Restriction enzymes DNA FRAGMENTS SEPARATE FRAGMENTS BY AGAROSE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS DENATURE DNA AND TRANSFER TO NITROCELLULOSE Radiolabelled DNAprobe INCUBATE WITH PROBE EXPOSE X-RAY FILM TO PAPER Amplified fragment length polymorphism AFLP analysis is able to detect high levels of polymorphism and has high repeatability and speed of analysis. AFLP technique as being based on the detection of restriction fragments by PCR amplification and argued that Ê ¹the reliability of the RFLP technique is combined with the power of the PCR techniqueÊ ¹. Firstly extraction of highly purified DNA then restriction endonuclease digestion of DNA followed by ligation of adapters. After this amplification of these fragments is done by two primers, and then gel electrophoresis and analysis of fragments by automated sequencing machines. The advantage of this technique is that it is applicable to all species and unlike RAPD; this technique is highly reproducible as it combines restriction digestion and PCR. However, AFLP requires more DNA (300-1000 ng per reaction) and is more technically demanding than RAPD [4].AFLP markers in surveys of plant diversity are discussed in a review published by Mba and Tohme [28]. Recently, Jatropha curcas [29] and Rhodiola rosea [30] have been characterized by AFLP in germplasm collection. The wild populations of Agave angustifolia in the desert was studied by Teyer et al. [31] using AFLP to measure the genetic variability within and between natural populations. AFLP markers have been extensively used for phylogenetic analysis and determining the genetic diversity for conservation of endangered plant species [32-36]. ISOLATION OF GENOMIC DNA Basic protocol: DIGESTION WITH ONE OR MORE RESTRICTION ENZYMES LIGATION OF RESTRICTION HALF-SITE SPECIFIC ADAPTORS TO ALL RESTRICTION FRAGMENTS AMPLIFICATION OF THESE FRAGMENTS WITH TWO PCR PRIMERS THAT HAVE CORRESPONDING ADAPTORS AND RESTRICTION SPECIFIC SEQUENCES ELECTROPHORETIC SEPARATION OF AMPLICONS ON A GEL MATRIX MICROSATELLITES Microsatellites, are alternatively known as simple sequence repeats (SSRs), short tandem repeats (STRs) or simple sequence length polymorphisms (SSLPs). These are tandem repeats of sequence units generally less than 5 bp in length [37].One common example of a microsatellite is a (CA)n repeat, where n is variable between alleles. These markers often present high levels of interâ‚ ¬Ã‚  and intraâ‚ ¬Ã‚ specific polymorphism, particularly when tandem repeats number ten or greater. CA nucleotide repeats are very frequent in human and other genomes, and present every few thousand base pairs. Interâ‚ ¬Ã‚ SSRs are a variant of the RAPD technique, although the higher annealing temperatures probably mean that they are more rigorous than RAPDs. The microsatellite protocol is simple, once primers for SSRs have been designed. The first stage is a PCR, depending upon the method of detection one of the primers is fluorescently or radioactively labeled. The PCR products are separated on high resolution polyacrylamide gels, and the products detected with a fluorescence detector (e.g. automated sequencer) or an Xâ‚ ¬Ã‚ ray film. The investigator can determine the size of the PCR product and thus how many times the short nucleotide was repeated for each allele. Microsatellites developed for particular species can often be applied to closely related species, but the percentage of loci that successfully amplify may decrease with increasing genetic distance [38]. Microsatellite technique has recently been used to establish conservation strategy of endangered plants like Calystegia soldanella [39], Tricyrtis ishiiana [40] and Galium catalinense subspecies acrispum [41]. ISOLATION OF GENOMIC DNA Basic protocol: SEQUENCING DESIGNING OF PRIMERS FOR REGIONS FLANKING MICROSATELLITES ELECTROPHORETIC SEPRATION OF AMPLICONS ONA GEL MATRIX ISOLATION OF GENOMIC DNA Conclusion Molecular characterization can play a role in uncovering the history, and estimating the diversity, distinctiveness and population structure. Awareness of the level of genetic diversity and the proper management of genetic resources are important issues in modern scenario. New markers deriving from DNA technologies are valuable tools to study genetic variability for conservation purposes. In the near future, the advent of genomics will give an impressive tool for genetic resources evaluation.

The Ghosts of The Woman Warrior Essay -- Maxine Hong Kingston Woman Wa

The Ghosts of The Woman Warrior In Maxine Hong Kingston's novel, The Woman Warrior, Kingston touches upon several aspects of life common to all. Her experiences as a child were illustrated through this book. People not of the Chinese culture were seen as ghosts in this child's world. The similarities between Kingston's childhood, and the reader's help make this novel universally readable. The images created by Kinston, and the parallels between her life and others justify the creation of The Woman Warrior. When writing an autobiography, it is the goal of the author to point out the lessons of her life to others. While the lessons expressed are not always unique, each has its purpose. Parent child differences are common; caused by changing times and beliefs. Kingston not only had to deal with the generation gap, but she had to deal with the dissimilar Chinese and American mindset and traditions. Kingston often explained in detail how her mother acts in certain situations. Maxine often felt embarrassed by her mom; when they received a wrong prescription, her mother wanted retribution from the pharmacist. It would be complex for Maxine to explain the situation to the store clerk, who would not understand. As a child such a situation is confusing, explaining to mom will not help, she is not American. Those who have not encountered a similar situation can still correlate the predicament the one's experiences. Telling stories is a tradition of many cultures. Parents tell of a mystical event, or sometimes of a person. Knowing the history of one's ancestors is important. As a whole, people are always making mistakes; to correct them the error must be remembered so that the same act is not repeated. "S... ...haman who would only treat those who were not dying. This was her way of making herself appear a better doctor. No one would want to be treated by a physician whose patients died. Maxine's mother is also reluctant to show her Medical diploma from China. She said, "The sweat of hard work is not to be displayed. It is much more graceful to appear favored by the gods."(??) Modesty is an attribute to one's personality, an especially important one in Chinese culture. Kingston recalls several events during her childhood in Stockton, during The Woman Warrior. No matter where one is from, one's parent child relations have similarities to those told in this novel. In every life there are people considered outsiders, those outsiders are ghosts to certain people. The biographical events on which this book is based provide a universal foundation for Kingston's novel. The Ghosts of The Woman Warrior Essay -- Maxine Hong Kingston Woman Wa The Ghosts of The Woman Warrior In Maxine Hong Kingston's novel, The Woman Warrior, Kingston touches upon several aspects of life common to all. Her experiences as a child were illustrated through this book. People not of the Chinese culture were seen as ghosts in this child's world. The similarities between Kingston's childhood, and the reader's help make this novel universally readable. The images created by Kinston, and the parallels between her life and others justify the creation of The Woman Warrior. When writing an autobiography, it is the goal of the author to point out the lessons of her life to others. While the lessons expressed are not always unique, each has its purpose. Parent child differences are common; caused by changing times and beliefs. Kingston not only had to deal with the generation gap, but she had to deal with the dissimilar Chinese and American mindset and traditions. Kingston often explained in detail how her mother acts in certain situations. Maxine often felt embarrassed by her mom; when they received a wrong prescription, her mother wanted retribution from the pharmacist. It would be complex for Maxine to explain the situation to the store clerk, who would not understand. As a child such a situation is confusing, explaining to mom will not help, she is not American. Those who have not encountered a similar situation can still correlate the predicament the one's experiences. Telling stories is a tradition of many cultures. Parents tell of a mystical event, or sometimes of a person. Knowing the history of one's ancestors is important. As a whole, people are always making mistakes; to correct them the error must be remembered so that the same act is not repeated. "S... ...haman who would only treat those who were not dying. This was her way of making herself appear a better doctor. No one would want to be treated by a physician whose patients died. Maxine's mother is also reluctant to show her Medical diploma from China. She said, "The sweat of hard work is not to be displayed. It is much more graceful to appear favored by the gods."(??) Modesty is an attribute to one's personality, an especially important one in Chinese culture. Kingston recalls several events during her childhood in Stockton, during The Woman Warrior. No matter where one is from, one's parent child relations have similarities to those told in this novel. In every life there are people considered outsiders, those outsiders are ghosts to certain people. The biographical events on which this book is based provide a universal foundation for Kingston's novel.

Origin of Paper :: Essays

The word paper comes from the Greek term for the ancient Egyptian writing material called papyrus, which was formed from beaten strips of papyrus plants. Papyrus was produced as early as 3000 BC in Egypt, and sold to ancient Greece and Rome. The establishment of Great library at Alexandria put a drain on the supply of Papyrus, so According to the Roman Varro, Pliny's Natural History records (xiii.21), parchment was invented under the patronage of Eumenes of Pergamum, to build his rival libray at Permagum. parchment or vellum, made of processed sheepskin or calfskin, replaced papyrus, as the papyrus plant requires subtropical conditions to grow. In China, documents were ordinarily written on bone or bamboo, making them very heavy and awkward to transport. Silk was sometimes used, but was normally too expensive to consider. Indeed, most of the above materials were rare and costly. While the Chinese court official Cai Lun is widely regarded to have first described the modern method of papermaking (inspired from wasps and bees) from wood pulp in AD 105, the 2006 discovery of specimens bearing written characters in north-west China's Gansu province suggest that paper was in use by the ancient Chinese military more than 100 years before Cai in 8 BCE [1]. Archà ¦ologically however, true paper without writing has been excavated in China dating from the 2nd-century BCE. In America, archaeological evidence indicates that paper was invented by the Mayas no later than the 5th century AD.[1] Called Amatl, it was in widespread use among Mesoamerican cultures until the Spanish conquest. In small quantities, traditional Maya papermaking techniques are still practiced today. Paper is considered to be one of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China. It spread slowly outside of China; other East Asian cultures, even after seeing paper, could not figure out how to make it themselves. Instruction in the manufacturing process was required, and the Chinese were reluctant to share their secrets. The paper was thin and translucent, not like modern western paper, and thus only written on one side. Books were invented in India, of Palm leaves (where we derive the name leaf for a sheet of a book). The technology was first transferred to Korea in 604 and then imported to Japan by a Buddhist priest, Dam Jing (曇å ¾ ´) from Goguryeo, around 610, where fibres (called bast) from the mulberry tree were used. After further commercial trading and the defeat of the Chinese in the Battle of Talas, the invention spread to the Middle East, Production was started in Baghdad, where the arabs invented a method to make a thicker sheet of paper.

The Great Dangers of Civil Disobedience

Van Dudes explicitly refutes the concepts of Thoreau suggesting that they, as the title of his work suggests, destroy democracy. Van Dudes feels that when man disobeys the law and separates from the democratic society he feels has failed, he simply pushes democracy further towards failure. While the ends laid out by Thoreau in Walden and Civil Disobedience, and Martin Luther King Jar. In Letter From Birmingham Jail, may be completely valid, the mean by which they chose to try and attain them, civil disobedience, is acted upon without true understanding of its detrimental impact to democratic society according to Lewis H.Van Dudes. While Henry David Thoreau seems to feel he is presenting the ideals for how one should live their life and how government should function, In reality he Is conveying an impractical message with detrimental effects. In his work Walden, Thoreau outlines the basic ideas of transcendentalism and keeps an account of his time spent living in the Walden woods. It is in the Walden woods that Thoreau concludes, â€Å"If we do not†¦ Forge rails, and devote days and nights to the work, but go to tinkering upon our lives o improve them, who will build railroads?†¦ Ho will want Thoreau Is conveying the message that within American society man has becomes so consumed with his own life that he has forgotten about striving towards progression. Thoreau feels that If every man spends his time concerned with minor detail, and the material things society has defined as symbols of success. Man will not advance, he will simply live a cyclical life during which nothing of meaning occurs. While Thoreau presents his ideas with great confidence he soon finds that man inherently can't abandon all outing and ritual, thus making his concept of transcendence impractical.More Important than the Impracticality of transcendentalism Is Thoreau Interpretation of what he is presenting. Thoreau feels he is providing the example of a man who transcends societal constraints and living his life to the fullest. In reality Thoreau is very much avoiding society entirely by taking up this supposed transcendent lifestyle. Lewis H. Van Dudes presents the Idea that call disobedience Is very much a self- fulfilling prophecy. In going to the woods Thoreau doesn't â€Å"build railroads† but instead leaves them to be built by the world which he has lost faith in.By leaving the building of railroads, essentially the directing of society, to a society he feels is very limited due to deeply Ingrained routine and ritual, Thoreau removes the Influence he may have potentially had. This removal of Influence doesn't lead the railroads to taking the shape Thoreau wished for but instead lets a society he already doesn't 1 OFF nave Tall n In create teen In any way teen please. When man elects to transcend, en really avoids society and does not build railroads but instead runs from them. Henry David Thoreau presents his ideas for achieving better governmen t in his work Civil Disobedience.As the title of his work suggests, Thoreau felt civil disobedience, a form of non-violent protest of laws, was the key to ensuring a government doesn't over extend its control over its people. In Civil Disobedience Thoreau states, â€Å"The only obligation which I have a right to assume is to do at any time what I think is right†(l). Thoreau seems to suggest that governmental laws constrain people. He feels as if man can't truly live within a society led by a government that â€Å"restricts† him by imposing laws and expecting adherence to them.While Thoreau feels that a government that didn't impose itself upon him would best allow man to flourish, it is Thoreau very belief that he should be able to do what he feels is right that could potentially create anarchy. Van Dudes argues that to break the law is to consider oneself above the law, and if everyone feels they are above the law society can't function. If no one pays taxes or suppor ts government society doesn't flourish instead it perishes. While an organized effort against government could potentially lead to unofficial results, when all people rebel against the laws currently in place the results are not necessarily ideal.Simply because many people disagree with the law doesn't mean they have the same opinions on what the proper laws are. Abandonment of laws would possibly, and likely result in the development of factions and these divided factions could result in the development of a state of anarchy. While Thoreau felt he was conveying the basis for great improvement in society, should his intellectual ideas be taken to fruition the possibility of anarchy could be ever present. Martin Luther King Jar. Arguably one of the most influential Americans of all time, relied upon civil disobedience as a method of attaining his ultimate goal, the elimination of segregation. During one of his nonviolent protests King was arrested and placed in a Birmingham Jail. Aft er being condemned by the clergymen of Birmingham King wrote his Letter From Birmingham Jail. Within this letter King attempts to Justify the need for his acts of civil disobedience. King claims there is a necessity for civil disobedience to bring about change.King's goal was, without a doubt, Just and necessary however his methods for attaining his goal were not. In his letter King stated, â€Å"One has not only a legal but a moral responsibility to obey Just laws. Conversely, one has a moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws. I would agree with SST. Augustine that ‘an unjust law is no law at par 12). King takes a very similar position to Thoreau in deciding that it is man's responsibility to disobey laws he finds unjust. King is suggesting that to think a law is unjust but do nothing is Just s bad as blindly following the law in the first place.King is convinced that only civil disobedience could bring the results he desired. While King's goal to end the segregation of African Americans and whites in America was obviously one of great importance, his methods were not as ideal. Van Dudes would argue that by insisting on disobeying laws, Martin Luther King was demanding African Americans and others to pull away from the potential answer to their problem. King was essentially giving up on the democracy that he felt oppressed him. While democracy is inherently flawed it still allows for all who patiently adhere to it can have an influence.King doesn't patiently wait for the processes of democracy to get his point across. Instead , Klan puts enamels above democracy Ana requests toners ay ten same. Only in abandoning democracy does it truly fail, not due to its own inherent faults, but due to the assumption of failure by those who abandon it. Lewis H. Van Dudes, in his Civil Disobedience: Destroyer of Democracy, attempts to refute the beliefs of all those who favor civil disobedience. Van Dudes directly interdicts Thoreau in saying, â€Å"Thoreau posit ion is not only morally irresponsible but politically reprehensible.When citizens in a democracy are called on to make a profession of faith, the civil disobedient offer only a confession of failure. † Van Dudes is conveying the idea that Thoreau beliefs are unacceptable because what he feels to be an inspiring message for further progress, is simply a foreboding message of unavoidable failure. Thoreau sees civil disobedience as the expression of a higher man who is unwilling to stand for moral injustices. On the other hand, Van Dudes argues that Thoreau ideas suggest to man that he should give up on his effort to make change.By stepping away from American democracy and society the natural born right to try and direct democracy in the ways you wish is lost. Van Dudes also contradicts the idea that man should, at any time, disregard the law when he states, â€Å"There is no man who is above the law, and there is no man who has a right to break the law. Civil disobedience is no t above the law, but against the law. † Van Dudes is making it clear that are only two types of citizens, those who obey the law ND those who disobey the law. Civil disobedience is not a loophole or gray area it is simply a glorified Justification for breaking the law.Simply because such a glorified explanation is presented doesn't mean one should latch onto it. Man within a democracy should support it in hopes of making it better, not ignore it because he doesn't approve of it in its current state. Lewis H. Van Disuse's argument brings to light the potential dangers of the seemingly Justified argument for civil disobedience. Lewis H. Van Dudes refutes both Henry David Thoreau and Martin Luther King's arguments in favor of civil disobedience. Thoreau believed in a policy of civil disobedience in trying to prevent democratic government from oppressing its people.King felt that civil disobedience was a necessary measure in bringing an end to segregation. Van Dudes makes evident the potential dangers of both men's ideas. Van Dudes brings to the forefront the potential for political turmoil should the message of either King or Thoreau be put into practice. While King and Thoreau both feel they are presenting the method by which society can better itself, Van Dudes sakes it clear that their ideas imply people should give up on a government that doesn't comply exactly with their beliefs.

Exile and Suffering Essay

Early scholars of Anglo-Saxon literature believed that â€Å"The Seafarer† represented an early pagan poem that had been adapted for Christian audiences by the insertion of pious formulas throughout and a moral at the end; accordingly, these scholars expended considerable ingenuity in attempting to excise the Christian elements to discover the â€Å"real poem† hidden beneath these composite overlays. Pound’s famous translation, in line with this emphasis, systematically removes or downplays many explicitly Christian elements of the poem and stops before the overtly homiletic conclusion, which features some dozen direct references to God and the heavens in the last twenty-five lines. Now, however, critics seem generally to agree that the two halves of the poem are unified by a movement from earthly chaos to heavenly order and that its coherent thematic thrust is the Christian message that the afterlife is more important than life on Earth. The poem is frequently discussed in conjunction with â€Å"The Wanderer,† another Exeter Book poem that shares many themes and motifs with â€Å"The Seafarer,† including the structure in which a specific treatment of biographical subject matter—the plight of a wanderer or Seafarer—is followed by a more general homiletic section that draws a religious meaning from the earlier material. The sailor, as a man required traveling over a hostile and dangerous environment, had always seemed to Christian poets to be a naturally apt image of the believer’s life on Earth, which should be viewed as a hazardous journey to the true homeland of Heaven rather than as a destination to be valued in itself. In this poem, the speaker seems to be a religious man (or reformed sinner) who has chosen the seafaring life as much for its efficacy as a means of spiritual discipline as for any commercial gain to be derived from it. The original opposition in the poem between landsmen and Seafarers gives way to the insight that all men are, or ought to think of themselves as, Seafarers, in the sense that they are all exiles from their true home in Heaven. As lines 31-32 (previously quoted) establish, the land can be just as cold and forbidding as the sea, and the virtuous, at least, should hope that they will be sojourning in this harsh world for only a brief time. True Christian â€Å"Seafarers† must psychologically distance themselves from secular life, as the Seafarer of this poem has done both literally and figuratively. The poet appears to encapsulate his theme at the pivotal midpoint of the poem: â€Å"therefore the joys of the Lord seem warmer to me than this dead life, fleeting on land. † This recommended ascetic withdrawal from worldly interests should enable the Christian to properly reject the comforts of life on the land as transient and seek spiritual rather than physical comforts.